The Republic of Singapore, despite its small size, is a focal point for trade and economic development in the region, with one of the world’s busiest ports and largest oil refineries.[1] The income generated from industry and shipping traffic has helped it become one of the wealthiest nations in the region, with a per capita GDP second only to Japan. (See Table 1.)

Relative to its small land area, Singapore is endowed with considerable biological wealth. Fringing and patch reefs grow around both the main island and more than 60 small offshore islands. These reefs contain more than 197 hard coral species in 55 genera and 111 species of reef fish from 30 coral families.[2] Singapore’s coral reef area is estimated to be about 54 square kilometers.

Singapore’s coral reefs are not subject to the unsustainable fishing practices that are so pervasive throughout the rest of the region. Fisheries and the trade in aquarium fish are well controlled. Sewage and industrial waste treatment are relatively good, and marine pollution from ships is mitigated by effective regulatory measures.[3] However, the development required to build and maintain its globally important port has taken a substantial toll on corals reefs.

During the past four decades, Singapore has engaged in extensive land reclamation and coastal development projects. Reclamation has been particularly devastating. Around 60 percent of total coral reef area has been lost owing to nearshore reclamation, and the accompanying sediment loads have triggered declines in coral cover in almost all sites monitored since 1987. Average visibility has been reduced from 10 m in the 1960s to about 2 m today.[4] Most reefs have lost up to 65 percent of their live coral cover since 1986. Experts estimate that about 70 percent of Singapore's reefs are degraded compared to conditions 50 years ago.[5] Singapore’s reefs were further damaged by the 1997-98 bleaching associated with ENSO. Nearly 90 percent of hard corals bleached, and 25 percent of these have failed to recover.

The RRSEA model indicates that all of Singapore's reefs are threatened by human activities. The dominant threats are coastal development, with its associated sedimentation and marine-based pollution.

Currently, no national policy or specified agency exists to manage coral reefs. Nevertheless, strong measures and consistent monitoring of effluents throughout the nation help to curtail risks from marine pollution. Nongovernmental organizations are taking a strong role in raising awareness and protecting coral reefs through a wide range of activities.

Notes

1. Chou Loke Ming, "International Coral Reef Initiative Country Report: Singapore," presented at the Regional ICRI Workshop for East Asia, Cebu, Philippines, April 2, 2001, p. 2.

2. Coral data from Chou Loke Ming, "Status of Southeast Asian Coral Reefs," in C. Wilkinson, ed., Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 1998 (Cape Ferguson: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 1998), p. 84; data on reef fish from Chou Loke Ming et al., "Coral Reef Fishes of the ASEAN region," in C.R. Wilkinson, Living Coastal Resources of Southeast Asia: Status and Management, Report of the Consultative Forum, Third ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living Coastal Resources (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 1994), pp. 13-17.

3. M. Spalding, C. Ravilious, and E.P. Green, World Atlas of Coral Reefs (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), p. 270.

4. Chou, "International Coral Reef Initiative Country Report: Singapore," pp. 2, 5.

5. Chou, "Status of Southeast Asian Coral Reefs," pp. 84, 121.